托福閱讀分類題型

同學(xué)們您是否也想知道托福閱讀分類題型，這個(gè)問(wèn)題的分析和解答呢？相信你通過(guò)以下的文章內(nèi)容就會(huì)有更深入的了解，話不多說(shuō)，接下來(lái)就跟著中國(guó)教育在線小編一起看看吧。

托福 閱讀分類題型

托福閱讀考試中，大家除了平時(shí)的練習(xí)和記憶，掌握相當(dāng)?shù)脑~匯量以外，對(duì)于各種題型的分類和解法也應(yīng)了如指掌，只有了解了這一層才能在考試中得心應(yīng)手，做到胸有成竹。下面小編就“托福閱讀題型分類及解法”給大家作出整理，希望大家重視。

1 信息歸類題

特點(diǎn)：

(1)通常文章采用對(duì)比寫法。

(2)有無(wú)用的選項(xiàng)。

關(guān)鍵：排除無(wú)用選項(xiàng)。

同學(xué)們?cè)趶?fù)習(xí)時(shí)可以分類練習(xí)，這樣可以培養(yǎng)對(duì)每一類題型的敏銳感以及加快解題速度。

2 指代題

問(wèn)法：The word they/ their/ it/ its/ some in the passage refers to

技巧：

(1)單復(fù)數(shù)

it找單數(shù)名詞或名詞性詞組。

they找復(fù)數(shù)名詞或名詞性詞組。

(2)在主從復(fù)合句, 并列句中, 后半句的代詞主語(yǔ)優(yōu)先指代前半句主語(yǔ)的核心詞(有例外, 要從意義判斷)。

(3)簡(jiǎn)單句中,代詞優(yōu)先指代主語(yǔ)核心詞, 次之制代賓語(yǔ)核心詞。

(4)代詞所在句子找不到合適的指代, 優(yōu)先指代前一句主語(yǔ), 次之指代后一句賓語(yǔ)。

(5)一句話中, 相同的代詞指代相同。

3 直接事實(shí)題

問(wèn)法：According to the passage, what/ which/ why/ when?

技巧：定位原文, 細(xì)讀。

4 infer題(需要精確理解)

注意：既然是infer, imply, 就一定不是原文中明確說(shuō)的。

技巧：

(1)時(shí)間前后推理。

(2)排除法。

(3)不要加入自己的觀點(diǎn)。

5 舉例說(shuō)明概述題 (例子的作用)

技巧：

(1)重點(diǎn)不是例子本身, 而是舉例子的目的及例子的服務(wù)對(duì)象。

(2)概述的同義改寫就是答案。

6 EXCEPT列舉題

技巧：重視文中三個(gè)或三個(gè)以上的列舉 (遇到的話就做筆記記下來(lái)---Sissi如是說(shuō))。

定位：核心關(guān)鍵詞 such as n1, n2, n3………A, B, and/ or C.

7 插入句子題

技巧

(1)待插入的句子中, 代詞 this, these their, it, such, he, another 這些通常是上一句]提過(guò)的,所以才特指。

(2)因果, 轉(zhuǎn)折等過(guò)渡詞 therefore, so, however, as a result, consequently, on the contrary.

(3)遞進(jìn)擴(kuò)展詞 furthermore, also, as well, too, other, in addition, moreover, besides, even, additionally.

(4)結(jié)構(gòu)配對(duì)詞on the one hand…. On the other handsome…others.

(5)關(guān)鍵同義詞 重復(fù)出現(xiàn)的名詞、副詞、形容詞。

8 句子要點(diǎn)題

問(wèn)法：which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence.

錯(cuò)誤選項(xiàng)：

(1) 有新內(nèi)容, 或有相反內(nèi)容。

(2) 遺漏了原文中重要信息。

9 全文總結(jié)題

(1)注意段首句, 注意自己歸納總結(jié)。

(2)關(guān)注文章結(jié)構(gòu),特別是先總后分式。

10 詞匯題

問(wèn)法：The word/phrase XXX is closest in meaning to____

技巧：

(1)首先看是否認(rèn)識(shí), 如果在認(rèn)識(shí), 在選項(xiàng)中找同義或近義詞, 并代入原文檢驗(yàn)。

(2)如果不認(rèn)識(shí),將4個(gè)選項(xiàng)代入原文, 看上下文是否合理。

(3)看原詞所在句子前后2句, 找重復(fù)對(duì)應(yīng)。

(4)如果懸想中有2個(gè)懸想都在上下文中合理,選擇在含義上與原詞沾邊的詞。

(5)選項(xiàng)中不認(rèn)識(shí)的詞不輕易去選。

做題順序：

看單詞，看選項(xiàng)，原文驗(yàn)證。

托福閱讀不同題型的解題技巧

托福閱讀考試中雖然題型的種類不同，但是解題的思路和技巧，有些是共通的。因此在備考中，我們也需要掌握一些這方面的技巧，以方便我們更好地完成題目的解答。下面就是詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容整理。

把握核心邏輯

Paraphrasing【改述題】

改述題對(duì)于考生是不是聽著陌生?但它在托福閱讀文章中的地位卻舉足輕重。因?yàn)殚喿x中的長(zhǎng)難句是考生們要面對(duì)的最大障礙，而改述題通常就是以長(zhǎng)難句的形式出現(xiàn)。對(duì)于改述題的拿分技巧，錦囊就是 —— 把握核心邏輯。法則詮釋：抓住長(zhǎng)句的核心邏輯，對(duì)其進(jìn)行分析，可以用詞核心邏輯來(lái)匹配選項(xiàng)。和原句核心邏輯矛盾的選項(xiàng)可以排除。

例如: It involves probing for deeply rooted concerns, devising creative solutions, and making trade-offs and compromises where interests are opposed.

分析：這是一句以 it 為主語(yǔ)，謂語(yǔ)是 involves，三個(gè)動(dòng)名詞短語(yǔ)做賓語(yǔ)(屬于平行結(jié)構(gòu))的長(zhǎng)難句。在閱讀中經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)“a and b”或“a or b”的形式，其中 a 與 b 同義或近義，所以只要認(rèn)識(shí)其中一個(gè)詞就能猜測(cè)出另一個(gè)詞的大致意思。例如：trade-off and compromises。

直譯為：它涉及到探究深層次的關(guān)注，想出有創(chuàng)造性的解決方案，以及當(dāng)利益矛盾時(shí)，做出權(quán)衡和妥協(xié)。

改述題，在剔除其糟粕取其精華后，是不是顯得簡(jiǎn)單易懂。事實(shí)上改述題就是一個(gè)不斷篩選的過(guò)程。平?？忌梢远嗑毩?xí)下對(duì)長(zhǎng)難句的結(jié)構(gòu)分析，會(huì)很有助于閱讀理解的速度。

聲東擊西

Purpose【功能目的題】

托福閱讀中，功能目的題在一定程度上也叫例證題，它主要考查考生透過(guò)表面特定的修辭方法/方式發(fā)掘潛在的目的能力。在 IBT 考試中會(huì)有 3-4 個(gè)這類型題目。下面為您想出的答題策略錦囊就是 —— 聲東擊西。

首先我們看下它的出題形式：

The author uses X as an example of…

Why does the author mention X ?

The author discusses X in paragraph X in order to…

熟悉了它的出題形式后，我們給出的具體解題思路如下：被提問(wèn)的細(xì)節(jié)附近，即其前一句或后一句，往往是與其最直接相關(guān)的目的句。用此目的句去和選項(xiàng)進(jìn)行匹配，即可甄選出正確答案來(lái)。在此，我們可以利用這個(gè)大原則，來(lái)分析一個(gè)最常見的文章結(jié)構(gòu)，總分的舉例結(jié)構(gòu)，并利用這種結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)解題。

常見的表示舉例的提示性的單詞或短語(yǔ)有：for example/for instance/such as/as/as a example of/one of…/this is the case…等。

如果題干中關(guān)鍵詞對(duì)應(yīng)原文的句子里有相關(guān)的表示例證的單詞，短語(yǔ)出現(xiàn)，則向前看前面的句子，答案也就隨之浮現(xiàn)出來(lái)。所以在平時(shí)的閱讀練習(xí)中，大家一定要注意句子之間邏輯關(guān)系，句與句之間不是互相獨(dú)立的，而是緊密聯(lián)系，互相支撐，構(gòu)建段落，甚至是全文。

總而言之，功能題的考點(diǎn)通常在被提問(wèn)的細(xì)節(jié)附近，或者把兩端句子的陳述對(duì)調(diào)呈現(xiàn)。故意制造煙霧選項(xiàng)，即造成要攻打東面聲勢(shì)，西面卻是正確選項(xiàng)。需要考生們很強(qiáng)的辨別能力。

抓住主干詞

Insertion【插入題】

按照 ETS 官方指南上的解析，這類題型重點(diǎn)考查英文句子間的邏輯語(yǔ)義關(guān)系，即英文中句子與句子是如何銜接在一起的。所以，只要掌握了英語(yǔ)句子間的銜接手法(cohesive devices)，這種題型便可迎刃而解。所以，答題錦囊就是 —— 抓住主干詞。先讓我們來(lái)看下插入題里的銜接手法：

1. 代詞 (Pronouns)

具體包括人稱代詞、指示代詞和關(guān)系代詞等 (personal, demonstrative, relative, etc.)

2. 定冠詞 the + 名詞 (specific articles + nouns)

名詞所指對(duì)象第一次出現(xiàn)時(shí)，用不定冠詞 a 連接，當(dāng)后句再次提及該名詞對(duì)象時(shí)，為了表示它和前一句名詞是同一關(guān)系，會(huì)用定冠詞 the 引出。例如，A woman is walking into our classroom. The woman is our teacher。

3. 重復(fù)話題詞或同義近義改寫 (Repetition, synonym, or slight variation of a word)上下句的銜接也可以通過(guò)重復(fù)話題詞實(shí)現(xiàn)，或者是對(duì)該話題詞進(jìn)行相關(guān)改寫。

例如，To foster healthy relationships between children in a classroom, teachers should provide time for games and fun activities. Having healthy relationships with their peers helps childrengain confidence useful in other parts of their lives. (重復(fù)話題詞)

4. 過(guò)渡性詞和詞組(Transitional phrases/transitional adverbs)

上面講到的三種句間關(guān)系屬于隱性關(guān)系。隱性關(guān)系通過(guò)上下句的語(yǔ)義關(guān)系體現(xiàn)?，F(xiàn)在，我們要講的是句子間的顯性關(guān)系，即通過(guò)明顯的邏輯連詞或副詞來(lái)體現(xiàn)句間關(guān)系。這些顯性關(guān)系詞包括以下類別。

插入題的指代主干詞: it/they/this/these/such…/thus/however/another…other…also。識(shí)別出這些主干詞，往往答案就在其后面或緊密聯(lián)系的前后兩句，可以利用線索進(jìn)行選項(xiàng)識(shí)別。

擒賊先擒王

Main Idea【主旨題】

新托福的閱讀主旨題是其閱讀的一大難點(diǎn)，難就難在這種題目是多項(xiàng)選擇需要看遍全文，往往耗時(shí)較多。很多人做到最后一道題時(shí)還要返回去看一遍全文，而頁(yè)面以提示“時(shí)間到“，托福的第一項(xiàng)便這樣在慌亂中草草收?qǐng)?，以至于?duì)后面的考試產(chǎn)生不利影響。 表主旨的典型問(wèn)法有：The X paragraph mainly about? 等。因此，針對(duì)龐大繁雜的主旨題小站給出的錦囊 —— 擒賊先擒王。

具體的答題思路如下：

Step 1： 通讀四個(gè)判斷選項(xiàng);標(biāo)示出大致意思;

Step 2： 通讀全文拉構(gòu)架，找尋四個(gè)選項(xiàng)相關(guān)章節(jié);

Step 3： 通常是段首或段尾，如果發(fā)現(xiàn)與選項(xiàng)相呼應(yīng)，直接選為正確選項(xiàng)。

在主旨題中，還有一個(gè)小技巧是，帶有絕對(duì)表達(dá)的選項(xiàng)，如：only, most 等，常常為錯(cuò)誤的選項(xiàng)，可直接排除。另外，要學(xué)會(huì)區(qū)分主旨和細(xì)節(jié)，在此題型中，即使有些選項(xiàng)原文確實(shí)有提及，但是如果此選項(xiàng)為細(xì)節(jié)，那么這個(gè)選項(xiàng)就是錯(cuò)誤的選項(xiàng)。

小編以為主旨題的文章結(jié)構(gòu)基本形式是：總分總、分總分、對(duì)比并列。了解文章結(jié)構(gòu)十分有助于我們區(qū)分主干理由還是分支理由。主旨題要求考生理解段落的大意。最有可能在段首或斷尾出現(xiàn)，有時(shí)答案會(huì)很含蓄。要求學(xué)生對(duì)現(xiàn)有信息進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié)。

所以，對(duì)于托福閱讀來(lái)說(shuō)，主旨題就是每段文章的論點(diǎn)考核，不需要花太多時(shí)間在細(xì)枝末節(jié)上，只要記?。呵苜\先擒王。抓住觀點(diǎn)論句進(jìn)行選項(xiàng)匹配即可。

直接與間接

Categorizing【分類題】

托福閱讀分類題，是新托福的相對(duì)比較少出現(xiàn)的一種題型，它一般出現(xiàn)在最后一題的位臵，取代歸總題。考題的形式和雅思的 match 題型類似，將正確的選項(xiàng)歸類到正確的分類當(dāng)中去，會(huì)有多余的選項(xiàng)。這就需要考生具有極強(qiáng)的辨別邏輯能力，針對(duì)這種難點(diǎn)題型我們給出的錦囊就是—— 直接與間接法則。

顧名思義，在托福文章中，此題型一般會(huì)講述兩種不同的事物，我們姑且稱它們?yōu)?A 和 B. 類別 1 歸入與 A 類事物有關(guān)的項(xiàng)目，類別 2 歸入與 B 類事物有關(guān)的項(xiàng)目。

在文章中，作者也會(huì)對(duì) A 和 B 兩類事物進(jìn)行分別探討和互相比較，因此我們?cè)陂喿x時(shí)就必須注意作者在談?wù)摵捅容^ A 和 B 的時(shí)候是否提到這些項(xiàng)目，并把這些項(xiàng)目歸入到適當(dāng)?shù)念悇e中去。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，作者會(huì)在不同的段落中講述 A 和 B 兩類事物，不過(guò)有時(shí) A 和 B 會(huì)在同一段落中被提到，因?yàn)樽髡咭阉鼈冏饕粋€(gè)詳細(xì)的比較。

托福閱讀怎么備考拿高分

托福閱讀部分想要拿到高分甚至是滿分的成績(jī)，都是有一定的難度的。那么具體的備考中，同學(xué)們需要攻克哪些難題，來(lái)更好地備考托福閱讀考試呢?下面小編為大家整理了詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容，供大家參考。

如果考試準(zhǔn)備時(shí)間充足，可以多加涉獵，擴(kuò)充自己的知識(shí)背景;如果時(shí)間緊張，就先搞定TPO套題，熟練套路再去擴(kuò)展背景知識(shí)。

另外，還有一部分原因就是習(xí)慣問(wèn)題，如果你每次閱讀的時(shí)候都很抗拒，那肯定讀不進(jìn)去，狀態(tài)自然起不來(lái)。有這樣的問(wèn)題的話，大家可以試著每次在做閱讀之前先“清空”自己，再去做題，慢慢養(yǎng)成習(xí)慣。

長(zhǎng)難句

世界本沒(méi)有長(zhǎng)難句，修飾成分多了，便有了長(zhǎng)難句。

很多同學(xué)在遇到長(zhǎng)難句時(shí)總會(huì)懵，嘗試各種姿勢(shì)也無(wú)法理解句意，只能連蒙帶猜了。

而實(shí)際上，出現(xiàn)這種情況，還是因?yàn)樽约旱幕A(chǔ)不到位，詞匯量不足，語(yǔ)法不熟，句型不會(huì)解剖，自然無(wú)法理解。

而擁有了好的基礎(chǔ)后，又如何解決長(zhǎng)難句呢?這就需要大家在看長(zhǎng)難句的時(shí)候，多思考，一個(gè)句子為什么這么長(zhǎng)，常見的修飾成分到底有哪些?

咱們得清楚，閱讀長(zhǎng)難句的能力可以說(shuō)是托?？荚嚨暮诵哪芰?，一開始，我們會(huì)明顯感受到，有些題中的句子里明明每個(gè)單詞都很熟悉，但是必須要反復(fù)看3-5遍以上才能比較好的理解它;有的時(shí)候看了后面忘了前面，看了這句，忘了上句，浪費(fèi)時(shí)間不說(shuō)還做不對(duì)題目。

其實(shí)，這跟我們平時(shí)的初高中課堂上講語(yǔ)法多、用語(yǔ)法少的現(xiàn)象有關(guān)。我們的語(yǔ)法知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備不少，但是欠缺訓(xùn)練把語(yǔ)法知識(shí)運(yùn)用到長(zhǎng)難句的理解中

語(yǔ)法中比較難理解的其實(shí)就是定語(yǔ)從句、后置定語(yǔ)，在中文中，我們的定語(yǔ)無(wú)論多長(zhǎng)都加個(gè)“的”然后放在名詞前面;然而在英文中，定語(yǔ)的位置和形式變換很多，給我們?cè)O(shè)置了很多的閱讀障礙。

例如：

A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into thenineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or tosoften it, the perfection of a metal frame and steel wire of the finestquality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects fromthe most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from aliquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance……

其實(shí)就是一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單句Improvements produced an instrument，然后加上了后置定語(yǔ)、同位語(yǔ)的修飾成分而已：一系列技術(shù)進(jìn)步(19世紀(jì)的，包括123種)，產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)有好多音效的樂(lè)器，這些音效從某種聲音1到某種聲音2，從某種聲音3到某種聲音4。大家在通過(guò)系統(tǒng)的語(yǔ)法學(xué)習(xí)后，再把它利用到長(zhǎng)難句的分析和理解中去，最后達(dá)到閱讀中的任何長(zhǎng)難句讀一遍就能get到它的意思。

解題策略

托福閱讀10種題型，除最后的小結(jié)題外大都屬于考查文章細(xì)節(jié)的題目。根據(jù)題干中的關(guān)鍵詞定位是至關(guān)重要的一步，然后就是理解。此時(shí)如果詞匯量不夠怎么辦?事實(shí)上做閱讀我們永遠(yuǎn)要牢記的就是找句子主干，考查的信息基本都在主干中體現(xiàn)了。

比如：

The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows aroundthe fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order toprotect the crops。

這個(gè)句子比較長(zhǎng)，其中有which引導(dǎo)的定語(yǔ)從句，還有hunted… 這個(gè)狀語(yǔ)，而解題時(shí)我們只需要句子的主干The deerwere gone。多數(shù)同學(xué)在做題時(shí)有個(gè)習(xí)慣就是看到一句話后就開始逐詞閱讀，甚至試圖把它翻譯成中文理解，這種方式不僅耽誤時(shí)間，效果也不會(huì)太好。

正確的做法應(yīng)該是，遇到一句話先抓主干，遇到整段記得掃描段落有無(wú)顯眼的連詞，舉例信號(hào)詞等，瀏覽每段的主題句。

再說(shuō)一下小結(jié)題，這也是大多數(shù)考生的一個(gè)痛點(diǎn)。為什么這么說(shuō)?一是很多同學(xué)做到最后一題時(shí)時(shí)間已所剩無(wú)幾，二是最后一題是對(duì)全文的主要內(nèi)容的總結(jié)，相對(duì)復(fù)雜，腦子有些不清醒的話很容易選錯(cuò)。

那么如何把握全文結(jié)構(gòu)及大意的重要性?

咱們上面也提到了，一是做題之前可大概瀏覽文章的標(biāo)題及每段首句。作為學(xué)術(shù)性的閱讀文章，首句基本都是主題句。尤其是總分結(jié)構(gòu)的文章，比如TPO6中的InfantileAmnesia, 雖然文章較難理解，但是文中明確提出了三種觀點(diǎn)first，second，third…那么此類文章小結(jié)題的選項(xiàng)太顯而易見了。

再者，文章的每段會(huì)對(duì)應(yīng)出2-3道題，那么題目中對(duì)應(yīng)的部分基本都是段落的核心所在。從這兩點(diǎn)就可以很快了解文章的主要內(nèi)容。所以在進(jìn)行TPO練習(xí)時(shí)，做題雖不可或缺，但還要注意多加練習(xí)快速閱讀文章的能力。

總結(jié)：好的狀態(tài)+難點(diǎn)突破+解題策略=高分

托福閱讀背景資料

托福閱讀備考中，對(duì)于一些?？嫉膬?nèi)容，我們也要了解一下具體的背景知識(shí)。這樣能夠輔助我們更好地來(lái)完成文章的閱讀。下面小編為大家整理了“攝影術(shù)的發(fā)展”，供大家參考。

The camera obscura is an optical device that projects an image of its surroundings on a screen. It is used in drawing and for entertainment and was one of the inventions that led to photography and the camera. The device consists of a box or room with a hole in one side. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside where it is reproduced rotated 180 degrees (thus upside-down) but with color and perspective preserved. The image can be projected onto paper and can then be traced to produce a highly accurate representation.The largest camera obscura in the world is on Constitution Hill in Aberystwyth Wales.

Using mirrors as in the 18th-century overhead version it is possible to project a right-side-up image. Another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top the image being upright as viewed from the back.

As the pinhole is made smaller the image gets sharper but the projected image becomes dimmer. With too small a pinhole however the sharpness worsens due to diffraction. Some practical camera obscuras use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a largeraperture giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. History

The camera obscura has been known to scholars since the time of Mozi and Aristotle.The first surviving mention of the principles behind the pinhole camera or camera obscura belongs to Mozi a Chinese philosopher and the founder of Mohism. Mozi correctly asserted that the image in a camera obscura is flipped upside down because light travels in straight lines from its source. His disciples developed this into a minor theory of optics.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle understood the optical principle of the pinhole camera.He viewed the crescent shape of a partially eclipsed sun projected on the ground through the holes in a sieve and through the gaps between the leaves of a plane tree. In the 4th century BCE Aristotle noted that "sunlight travelling through small openings between the leaves of a tree the holes of a sieve the openings wickerwork and even interlaced fingers will create circular patches of light on the ground." Euclid’s Optics presupposed the camera obscura as a demonstration that light travels in straight lines.In the 4th century Greekscholar Theon of Alexandria observed that "candlelight passing through a pinhole will create an illuminated spot on a screen that is directly in line with the aperture and the center of the candle."

In the 6th century the Byzantine-Greek mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles (most famous for designing the Hagia Sophia) used a type of camera obscura in his experiments.

In the 9th century Al-Kindi (Alkindus) demonstrated that "light from the right side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the left side of the screen while light from the left side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the right side of the screen."

Alhazen also gave the first clear description and early analysis and invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera. While Aristotle Theon of Alexandria Al-Kindi and Chinese philosopher Mozi had earlier described the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole none of them suggested that what is being projected onto the screen is an image of everything on the other side of the aperture. Alhazen was the first to demonstrate this with his lamp experiment where several different light sources are arranged across a large area. He was thus the first to successfully project an entire image from outdoors onto a screen indoors with the camera obscura.

The Song Dynasty Chinese scientist Shen Kuo experimented with a camera obscura and was the first to apply geometrical andquantitative attributes to it in his book of 1088 AD the Dream Pool Essays. However Shen Kuo alluded to the fact that the Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang written in about 840 AD by Duan Chengshi during the Tang Dynastymentioned inverting the image of a Chinese pagoda tower beside a seashore.In fact Shen makes no assertion that he was the first to experiment with such a device. Shen wrote of Cheng’s book: "[Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang] said that the image of the pagoda is inverted because it is beside the sea and that the sea has that effect. This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole."

In 13th-century England Roger Bacon described the use of a camera obscura for the safe observation of solar eclipses.At the end of the 13th century Arnaldus de Villa Nova is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment.Its potential as a drawing aid may have been familiar to artists by as early as the 15th century; Leonardo da Vinci described the camera obscura in Codex Atlanticus. Johann Zahn’s "Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium which was published in 1685 contains many descriptions and diagrams illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and of the magic lantern.

Giambattista della Porta is said to have perfected camera obscura. He described it as having a convex lens in later editions of his Magia Naturalis the popularity of which helped spread knowledge of it. He compared the shape of the human eye to the lens in his camera obscura and provided an easily

understandable example of how light could bring images into the eye. One chapter in the Conte Algarotti’s Saggio sopra Pittura is dedicated to the use of a camera ottican painting.

Camera obscura from a manuscript of military designs. 17th century possibly Italian.

The 17th century Dutch Masters such as Johannes Vermeer were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of such a camera but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of considerable controversy recently revived by the Hockney–Falco thesis.

The term "camera obscura" itself was first used by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1604.The English physician and author Sir Thomas Browne speculated upon the interrelated workings of optics and the camera obscura in his 1658 discourse The Garden of Cyrus thus:

For at the eye the Pyramidal rayes from the object receive a decussation and so strike a second base upon the Retina or hinder coat the proper organ of Vision; wherein the pictures from objects are represented answerable to the paper or wall in the dark chamber; after the decussation of the rayes at the hole of the hornycoat and their refraction upon the Christalline humour answering the foramen of the window and the convex or burning-glasses which refract the rayes that enter it.

Four drawings by Canaletto representing Campo San Giovanni e Paolo in Venice obtained with a camera obscura (Venice Gallerie dell’Accademia)

Early models were large; comprising either a whole darkened room or a tent (as employed by Johannes Kepler). By the 18th century following developments by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke more easily portable models became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels but they were also employed by professionals including Paul Sandby Canaletto and Joshua Reynolds whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the Science Museum (London). Such cameras were later adapted by Joseph Nicephore Niepce Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot for creating the first photographs.

關(guān)于托福閱讀分類題型這個(gè)問(wèn)題本文的分享就到這里結(jié)束了，如果您還想了解更多相關(guān)的內(nèi)容，那么可以持續(xù)關(guān)注本頻道。

>> 雅思 托福 免費(fèi)測(cè)試、量身規(guī)劃、讓英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)不再困難<<